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Turkish cinema is an important part of Turkish culture, and has flourished over the years, delivering high quality entertainment to audiences in Turkey, across Europe (among the Turkish minorities), and in rare cases, the USA. Yesilcam ("Green Pine") refers to the Turkish film industry in the same way that Hollywood refers to American film. Yeşilçam is named after Yeşilçam street in the Beyoglu district of İstanbul where many actors, directors, crew members and studios were based.
During the 1950s-1970s, Yesicam was one of the world's largest film
industries , producing more than 250-300 films annually. It went into
decline due to the spread and popularity of television as a source of
entertainment in Turkey. Recent years have seen a resurgence in Turkish
cinema both as an art form and also from a commercial angle.
History
Overview
In
terms of film production, Turkey shared the same fate with many of the
national cinemas of the 20th century. Film production wasn't continuous
until around the 1950s and the film market in general was run by a few
major import companies that struggled for domination in the most
population-dense and profitable cities such as Istanbul and Izmir. Film
theatres rarely ever screened any locally produced films and the
majority of the programs consisted of films of the stronger western
film industries, especially those of the USA, France, Italy and
Germany. Attempts in film production came only from these big
importers, which could rely on their strong distribution-system and
their theatre-chains that would guarantee them a return-of-investment.
Between the years 1896-1945, the number of locally produced films did
not even reach 50 films in total, equalling to an average annual film
production under one film per year. Compared to the thousands of films
that have been imported and screened during the same period, it is hard
to speak about a presence of film production in Turkey before the 1950s.
This
would rapidly change after World War II. A total of 49 films produced
in 1952 meant that within a year, more films had been produced than the
Turkish industry could produce during all the previous years. During
the 60s, Turkey became the fifth biggest film producer world wide and
annual film production reached the 300 film benchmark just at the
beginning of the 70s. Compared with the histories of other national
cinemas, the achievements of the Turkish film industry after 1950 are
still remarkable.
However, the impact of TV and Video as the new
popular media and political turmoil in the 70s (often hand in hand with
deep economical crises) caused a sharp drop in ticket sales, resulting
into a long crisis starting at around 1980 and continuing until the
mid-90s. The number of annual ticket sales decreased from a 90 million
tickets in 1966 to 56 million tickets in 1984 and only 11 million in
1990.Accordingly the number of film theatres fell from an approximately
2000 theatres in 1966 to 56 million tickets in 1984 and only 11 million
in 1990.During the 1990's the average number of films produced per year
remained between 10-15 films, usually half of them not even making it
into the theatres.
Since 1995 the situation has improved. After
the year 2000, annual ticket sales reached the 20 millions and since
1995, the number of salons continuously increased to an approximately
500 salons country-wide. Now, Turkish films attract millions of
spectators and top the blockbuster-lists, often surpassing foreign
films in terms of ticket sales. However it is difficult to speak about
the existence of an industry, since most film are rather individual
projects of directors who otherwise earn their lifes in the TV,
Advertising or Theatre branche. The distribution of these films is
mainly handled by foreign companies such as Warner Bros and United
International Pictures.
Pre-1950s
Most of the Turkish
films produced before 1950 were projects initiated by import companies
owned by local families, most notably İpek Film, a daughter company of
the Ipek Merchandise, an import company that already existed in the
19th century as can be seen in their adverts published in Ottoman
literary journals such as Servet-i-Fünun. Another important company in
the early era of Turkish cinema was Kemal Film, a company whose
continuous presence as a leading import company has been often overseen
for a few local films it produced during the 1920s. (It is interesting
to note that the founders of Kemal Film bought their first film camera
on loan from the Ipek Merchandise). Both companies would be the
strongest film distributors until the 1950s and the only companies that
were financially sound enough to produce films themselves, with low
risks for financial failure as they already were in possession of a
distribution-system and theatre chains that guaranteed a
return-of-investment.
However, the notable developments of these
companies must be seen as necessary adaptations to the technological
progress of the western film industries whose films they were
importing. One example here being the establishment of the Marmara
Dubbing Studio in the early 1930s, when the silent era came to an end
in the West and sound-films became the standard, prompting the
import-dependant companies to adjust themselves to the new
technological requirements.
The big distributors in Istanbul,
led by İpek Film and Kemal Film gradually expanded their
distribution-system throughout the rest of the country during the
1930s, leading to the so-called "regional system" (Bölge İşletmeleri)
which consisted of seven distribution areas with their headquarters
being established in the most significant cities in those regions:
İstanbul (Marmara Region), İzmir (Aegaean Region), Ankara (Middle
Anatolian Region), Samsun (Black Sea Region), Adana (Mediterranean
Region), Erzurum (East Anatolian Region) and Diyarbakir (South East
Anatolian Region).The Regional System became much more important after
the 1950s, when local film production dramatically increased and local
films surpassed import-films in both ticket-sales and revenues. This
system became the financial fundament of Yeşilçam (often referred to as
"Turkish Hollywood), which was the heart of Turkish film production
between the years 1955-1975. After 1965, a so-called "Combined-System"
(Kombine Sistem)lead by a trust of some regional leaders is said to
have taken control on almost everything regarding production.A leading
figure of the trust was producer Türker İnanoğlu who is still active in
the media business today, now running Ulusal Film, Turkey's largest TV
production company.
The first film showing in Turkey was held in
the Yıldız Palace, Istanbul in 1896. Public shows by Sigmund Weinberg
in the Beyoğlu and Sehzadebasi districts followed in 1897. Weinberg was
already a prominent figure at that time, especially known as the a
representative of foreign companies such as Pathé for whom he sold
gramophones before he got into the film business. In some sources he is
also mentioned as a photographer, again as a result of being one of the
representatives of foreign companies such as Kodak-Goldmann.
The
first Turkish movie, a documentary produced by Fuat Uzkinay in 1914,
depicted the destruction of the Russian monument in Ayastefanos by the
public. The first thematic Turkish films were "The Marriage of Himmet
Aga" (1916-1918), started by Weinberg and completed by Uzkinay, "The
Paw" (1917) and "The Spy" (1917), both by Sedat Simavi. The
army-affiliated Central Cinema Directorate, a semi-military national
defense society, and the Disabled Veterans Society were the producing
organizations of that period.
In 1922 a major documentary film,
"Independence, the İzmir Victory," was made about the first war of
Independence. The same year, the first private movie studio, Kemal
Film, commenced operations. From 1923 to 1939, Muhsin Ertugrul was the
only film director in the country. He directed 29 films during this
period, generally incorporating adaptions of plays, operettas, fiction
and foreign films. The influence of the theater dating back to Uzkinay,
Simavi, Ahmet Fehim and Karagozoglu is very strong in Muhsin Ertugrul's
work.
The years between 1939 and 1950 were a period of
transition for Turkish cinema, during which it was greatly influenced
by the theater as well as by World War II. While there were only two
film companies in 1939, the number increased to four between 1946 and
1950. After 1949, Turkish cinema was able to develop as a separate art,
with a more professional caliber of talents.
The Yesilcam Era
Between
1950 and 1966, more than fifty movie directors practiced film arts in
Turkey. Omer Lutfi Akad strongly influenced the period, but Osman F.
Seden, Atif Yılmaz, and Memduh Un made the most films. The film "Susuz
Yaz" (Dry Summer), made by Metin Erksan, won the Golden Bear Award at
the Berlin Film Festival in 1964.
The number of cinemagoers and
the number of films made record a constant increase, especially after
1958. In the 1960s, cinema courses were included in the programs of the
theater departments in the language, History and Geography faculties of
Ankara University and Istanbul University, and in the Press and
Publications High School of Ankara University. A cinema branch was also
established in the Art History Department of the State Fine Arts
Academy.
The Union of Turkish Film Producers, and the State Film
Archives also were established in the 1960s. The State Film Archives
became the Turkish Film Archives in 1969. During the same period, the
Cinema-TV Institute was founded and annexed to the State Academy of
Fine Arts. The Turkish State Archives also became part of this
organization. In 1962, the Cinema-TV Institute became a department of
Mimar Sinan University. Among the well-known directors of the 1960-1970
period are Metin Erksan, Atif Yılmaz, Memduh Un, Halit Refig, Duygu
Sagiroglu, Remzi Aydın Jöntürk and Nevat Pesen. In 1970, the numbers of
cinemas and cinemagoers rose spectacularly. In 2,424 cinemas, films
were viewed by a record number of 247 million viewers.
In 1970,
approximately 220 films were made and this figure reached 300 in 1972.
Turkish cinema gave birth to its legendary stars at this period,
notable examples being Kemal Sunal, Kadir İnanır, Türkan Şoray and
Şener Şen. After this period however, the cinema began to lose its
audiences, due to nationwide TV broadcasts. After 1970, a new and young
generation of directors emerged, but they had to cope with an increased
demand for video films after 1980.
Decline of Yesilcam and the Post-Yesilcam Era
Increased
production costs and difficulties faced in the import of raw materials
brought about a decrease in the number of films made in the 1970s, but
the quality of films improved. However, the fall of cinema's popularity
continued to fall. In the early nineties, there were barely two or
three movies released for a year. During this period, most of the
seventies' stars had either moved to TV, or were trying to rebuild the
Yeşilçam's former glory. Some of the notable examples of this era are
Eşkıya (English: Guerilla) and Züğürt Ağa (English: Lord Indigent),
both starring Sener Sen. Both movies were critically and commercially
acclaimed.
However, the rise of Yesilçam didn't take place until
the release of Vizontele. The film was directed, written, and starred
by Yılmaz Erdoğan, who was praised by his long-running sit-com Bir
Demet Tiyatro, and his dedication to theatre. The movie starred the
cast of his usual plays, most notably Demet Akbağ, Altan Erkekli, and
Cem Yılmaz. This movie's huge commercial success (watched by 2.5
million viewers, which earned the movie the most viewed film for its
day) brought attention to the industry. A few years later, Cem Yılmaz
released his own film, G.O.R.A., which he both wrote and starred in.
This, and Vizontele's sequel Vizontele Tuuba' broke Vizontele's
records, by achieving 3.5, and 3 million viewers respectively.
Since
then larger-budgeted films produced, notable examples being Kurtlar
Vadisi: Irak (English: Valley of the Wolves: Iraq), continuing the
story of the controversial series Kurtlar Vadisi, (reached 4 million
viewers and still holds the record), Babam ve Oğlum (English: My Father
and My Son), Cem Yılmaz's second movie Hokkabaz (English: Magician) .
There
has been a rise in more experimental films. Notably the film "Türev"
was filmed without a prewritten script and even featured candid shots
of the actors. "Anlat Istanbul", an ensemble piece divided into five
"mini films" got a strong reception.
Legal Issues
Although
the need for a Cinema Law has been very often raised throughout the
history of the Turkish Republic, until 1986 no specific law or
regulation has been developed. While films have been usually treated as
goods and were in that regard subject to laws regarding taxation,
content-wise they were controlled by commissions that have been often
criticized for being mechanism of censorship.
In the 1930s some
members of the parliament raised the issue whether films would have a
bad impact on children. This was a popular theme at that time, not just
in Turkey, but also in the USA for example. (See: Payne Foundation
Studies) Later on in the 1960s, a debate around the so-called
Baykam-Law became quite famous for the tension it created amongst the
parlamentarians and the stakeholders in the industry. In 1977 and 1978
some further discussions for a cinema law have been held, but without
any result.
In 1986, finally, a cinema law, though highly
criticised by members of the industry and the cinema intelligentsia of
that time, has been passed by the parliament and is since then the
fundamental legislative document regarding cinema issues in Turkey.
Laws and Regulations
On
January 23, 1986, a new cinema law aimed to ensure support for those
working in cinema and music. A reorganization of the film industry
began in 1987 to address problems and assure its development. The
Ministry of Culture established the "Professional Union of Owners of
Turkish Works of Cinema" the same year.
The "Copyrights and
General Directorate of Cinema" was founded in 1989 as well as a
"Support Fund for the Cinema and Musical Arts". This fund is used to
provide financial support to the film sector.
Rating Systems and Censorship
One
of the most interesting studies on the issue of film censorship in
Turkey is Alim Şerif Onaran's Sinematografik Hürriyet (Cinematic
Freedom), published in 1968 by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but
written in 1963 and being the first study in Turkey which received a
PhD for a topic related to film. This study is still the most important
-if not only- study on the film evaluation methods applied in Turkey
before the 1950's. Onaran himself being active as a member of the Film
Rating Commission in his younger years, was a true expert on the topic
and his research includes also examples of the late Ottoman Period.
Ironically, Onaran became one of the most important intellectuals on
film in Turkey, owing his wealth of knowledge on early world film
history to the years he spent watching the films he was enrolled to
evaluate as a committee member.
A very interesting example on
the level of absurdness that censorship could reach is mentioned in
Çetin Yetkin's book Siyasal Iktidar Sanata Karşı (Political Regime vs
Art), published in 1970. It tells the story of a film which was
classified as "inappropriate for export" because the Evaluation
Committee decided that the film contains "communist propaganda". The
film-owner, who applied to the committee for being granted an
export-certificate was surprised to see the decision because he
mentioned on his application form that his intention was to sell a copy
of the film to a distributor in the Soviet Union, the worlds leading
communist country at that time.
References
1. ^ Özön, Nijat (1966) Türk Sineması Kronolojisi 1896-1966. İstanbul: Bilgi Yayınları.
2. ^ T.C. Devlet Istatistik Enstitüsü Eğlence İstatistikleri.
3. ^ Özön, Nijat (1966) Türk Sineması Kronolojisi 1896-1966. İstanbul: Bilgi Yayınları.
4. ^ T.C. Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü Eğlence İstatistikleri.
5. ^ Abisel, Nilgün (1987) "Yerli Yapımcılık Üzerine Notlar", Türk Sineması Üzerine Yazılar, Ankara: İmge Yayınları.
6. ^ Abisel, Nilgün (1987) "Yerli Yapımcılık Üzerine Notlar", Türk Sineması Üzerine Yazılar, Ankara: İmge Yayınları.
7. ^ Yetkin, Çetin (1970) Siyasal İktidar Sanata Karşı, Ankara: Bilgi Yayınları.
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