Churches Transformed Into Mosques

After the Ottoman conquest and up until the reign of Murad IV (1623- 1640) a number of churches or remains of such were turned into mosques in accordance with a policy of "improving the environment" pursued by the Turkish pious foundations in the course of their establishment.

Of these, twenty five have survived, either intact or in a delapidated state.

The first church to be built on the site of the present Ayasofia, which occupies a unique place in the history of world architecture and is the most magnificent work of Byzantine art, was opened with ceremony in 360 AD. Due to the destruction of this church by fire, another church was built on the same site and opened in 415 AD; however, this, too, was burnt down in the great Nika Rebellion of 532. The construction of the new Ayasofia, commissioned by the emperor Justinian and carried out under the supervision of two architects from western Anatolia, lasted from 532 to 537 AD.This gigantic building, in the construction of which no effort or expense were spared, has witnessed countless historic events both in the Byzantine and Turkish periods. Ayasofia, which has survived the centuries because of the repair and reinforcement work carried out, is dedicated to "the Divine Wisdon" (Sofia). This building which reflects Rome's liking for size and at the same time embodies the Near East's taste for dazzling colours and rich embellishments, reflected an architectural approach that had not been attempted until that time.

The middle of the building, whose length exceeds 70 metres, is covered by a dome which has a diameter between 31 and 33 metres. The pressure exerted by the latter is borne by two semi-domes on the east and west walls. Each semi-dome is supported by three smaller semi-domes (one of the semi-domes on the west wall is a vault). However, because this static system is not repeated in the north and south walls and the supporting system there is inadequate the weight of the superstructure (the dome) has, throughout its history, threatened the building with the danger of splitting apart. For this reason flying buttresses were added to hold the enormous building together. After the repairs carried out during the Byzantine period, more repairs were needed after it had been turned into a mosque. Some of these, which prevented its collapse, were carried out in the l6th century by Sinan the Architect. Another large-scale repair was carried out on the orders of Sultan Abdülmecit (1839-1861) between 1847 and 1849 by the architect Gaspare Fossat, who came from the Italian part of Switzerland.

When the church, which is adorned with the most valuable pieces of marble, displays the most exquisite workmanship and is embellished with the richest ornaments, was first built the upper part of its vaults and walls were covered with magnificent mosaic pictures. However, the Iconoclastic movement which emerged during the Byzantine period (726-842), was opposed to pictures in places of worship and all the mosaics in Ayasofia were destroyed. All of the mosaics that can be seen in the church today were created after 842. The mosaic murals in this church, which was turned into a mosque by Mehmet the Conqueror upon entering the city, were left untouched. They were left open for many years, and then gradually covered up with layers of paint. After the many years of restoration work, which commenced in 1932, many of these mosaics again saw the light of day and in 1934 Ayasofia was officially declared a museum by Atatürk. Over the door in the present entrance corridor we see mosaics depicting Constantine I offering a model of the city to the Virgin Mary and Justinian presenting her with a model of Ayasofia. Over the inner door of the church is a scene in which the emperor Leon VI prostrates himself in worship before Jesus; various saints are depicted in mosaics between the windows in the wall on the left (uninterrupted by semi-domes) which supports the main dome. In the semi-dome accommodating the altar we see the Virgin Mary and on one wall of the gallery above to the right there is a scene depicting the Day of Judgement, with the Virgin Mary and Saint John the Baptist interceding on behalf of man. On the wall at the very end of the same gallery there is a scene to the left of a window showing the Emperor Konstantinos Monomakhos IX (1043-1055) presenting gifts to the church and his wife Zoe,and on the right of the same window, a portrait of loannes Komnenos II (1118-1143) with his Hungarian wife Eirene and their son Alexios, who died of tuberculosis. In a dark, remote vault in the north gallery there is a portrait of Alexandros, who was "shadow emperor" from 912 to 913.

The tombs, schools, pious foundation fountains, fountains for ablutions, the clock-room, madrasas and libraries built by various sultans around Ayasofia, which had been a church for a thousand years but also served as a mosque for a few hundred years, the harmonious minarets at its four corners, the retaining walls and buttresses executed by the most eminent architects all demonstrate the interest that was taken in this building after the conquest.

The oldest of Istanbul's Byzantine places of worship is the İmrahor İlyas Bey Mosque in the Yedikule district. In 461 AD it was a church dedicated by the Studios Monastery to Saint John the Baptist. This building, which has had a long and dramatic history, was turned into a mosque by İmrahor (or Emir-Ahur, Mirahur) İlyas Bey towards the end of the l5th century. It suffered a large amount of damage due to a fire in the 18th century, again repaired, and in the first years of this century, suffered further damage caused by the collapse of its wooden roof. The young emperor Mikhael V took refuge in this church, which was one of the most frequented places in Istanbul; however, he was dragged outside by the crowd and blinded as a punishment (1057). The simple architecture of this building, which, like the first churches, was built in the form of a basilica and its once-magnificent l3th century interior decorations are both striking features. The big cellar serving as the cistern of the monastery was later used as a workshop but was partially destroyed by an explosion that took place during a fire a few years ago.

The Küçük (little) Ayasofia Mosque, which lies below Sultanahmet on the coast, was built by Justinian and his wife Theodora, who also built Ayasofia, between 527 and 536. It was dedicated to Saint Sergios and possibly to Bakkhos as well, and was located right next to the royal palaces. It is said that Justinian had this church built as a gesture of gratitude to the saints who were alleged to have intervened when he had been sentenced to death for his involvement in a plan to assassinate Anastasios (491-518). The saints in question had appeared to Anastasios in a dream and implored him to spare Justinian. Around 1500, which was about 50 years after the Ottoman conquest, the church was turned into a mosque by Hüseyin Ağa, who was in charge of the royal Harem. The former had established a number of pious foundations in Istanbul, and his own tomb is next to the mosque. The inside of this building, which is one of the finest of its kind in Istanbul, is round and it is covered by a flattish dome. It boasts some exquisite stone carving and on the inside there is an inscription running right round the wall in which the names of Justinian and his famous wife, Theodora, can be discerned. Apart from this, monograms bearing the name of the emperor can be seen on the exquisitely carved capitals of the columns. In front of the entrance of Küçük Ayasofia, which is the most important example of a centrally planned building from the early Byzantine period, is an extremely beautiful additional covered area for worship that was added after it had been turned into a mosque. In a later period the rooms surrounding its courtyard were turned into hermits' cells and then into a madrassa.

The old name of the Kalenderhane Mosque, which lies at the foot of the Bozdoğan (Valens) Aqueduct is not known with certainty. It is thought that it could be the Akaleptos Monastery, first referred to in the llth century. Immediately after the conquest this building was turned into a mosque by a pious foundation set up by Mehmet the Conqueror himself and allocated to the Kalender Dervishes. The interior, which is shaped like a cross with arms of equal length, is covered by a dome. The coloured marble facings on the wall next to the altar niche indicate that its interior was richly decorated. A very interesting find was encountered in a cell to the right (south) of the altar niche during investigations and restoration work being carried out by an American group in the Kalenderhane Mosque. This was an inscription in Latin written in Gothic letters containing the name of Saint Francis of Assisi. Apart from the fact that it was used as a Catholic church between 1204 and 1261,this is also the oldest reference to the Church of Saint Francis,(a saint who lived from 1181 to 1226), which is one of the most important churches in the European Christian world.

The Atik Mustafa Paşa Mosque on the inside of the city walls at Ayvansaray was perhaps the 9th or 10th century church of Saint Thekla. This cruciform building is surmounted by a dome that assumed its present shape during the Turkish period. The cell to the right of the altar niche was set out as a shrine in commemoration of His Holiness Câbir (a Muslim saint who accompanied the Prophet Muhammed o all his campaigns). This church was turned into a mosque during the reign of Sultan Bayezıd II by Mustafa Paşa, one of his viziers. The Gül Mosque, an impressive building in the Cibali district of the city, was a church built in the 9th century in the name of Saint Euphemia and was afterwards renamed Aya Theodosia. It was probably turned into a mosque at the beginning of the l6th century, in the reign of Selim II or shortly afterwards. This extremely high building is also in the form of a cross. lts upper part and dome assumed their present form during the Turkish period.

The Bodrum Mosque in Laleli was built by Constantine VIII and the emperor who reigned with him jointly, Romanos Rekapenos I (920-944). It stood next to the royal residence and had in fact been the church of the Myrelaion Monastery. Immediately next to it are the remains of a large, round Roman building more than 30m in diameter. When the church and monastery were founded columns were erected in this round building, it was covered with a vaulted roof and turned into a cistern. This is the reason whyit was named the Bodrum Mosque (Note: "bodrum" means "basement" or "cellar" in Turkish.) The church was turned into a mosque during the reign of Bayezıd II by Mesih Paşa, one of his viziers. However, it was badly damaged in the Mercan fire of 1909 and remained in that state until 1985, when it was repaired and restored and again became a mosque. It is the most harmonious of the cruciform churches. An excellent example in historical terms of the churches that were built according to this plan is the Eski lmaret Mosque, which stands on high ground overlooking the Golden Horn to the north of the Fatih district. This was the church of the Pantepoptes Monastery, which was founded by Anna Dolassena, mother of the emperor Alexios Komnenos I (1081-1118), towards the end of the llth century. Until it was turned into a retreat for hermits with various charitable buildings bearing the name of Mehmed the Conqueror by the sultan himself, the monastery was used as a hermit's retreat. It was not, as sometimes thought, used as a soup kitchen for the poor. The church was turned into a mosque. The church was also cruciform with a central dome.

Although none of its original decorations have survived to this day its architecture and dome reflect the architectural style of the middle Byzantine period.

It is highly probable that a monastery was also built by the Side of a church founded in the name of the Virgin Mary by a Byzantine commander named Konstantinos Lips circa 910 on the foundations of another older church. To the church which stands in the Yenibahçe valley to one side of today's Vatan Caddesi (also known as the Fenâri İsa Church Mosque) a further church was added towards the end of the l3th century on the south side. From the end of the l3th century and the beginning of the l4th century onwards, a number of members of the Byzantine royal family, including Andronikos II (1282-1328), were buried there. It is also known that the nearby Lips nunnery had a 12-15 bed hospital attached to it. After the conquest these buildings were turned into a hermits' retreat and mosque, by Fenârizade Alâeddin Ali Efendi of the famous family of learned men. The name 'Isa' comes from the name of its first sheikh. In 1918 a fire broke out which did substantial damage to this historic building and it was abandoned to its fate for many years. Then in 1959-60 it was restored and opened to worship once more. This building, which consists of the two adjoining churches and two additional wings added to the west and south of them, underwent considerable changes after the l7th century because of major repairs carried out by Bayram Paşa, large arches were added to both churches. The colourful, geometric design achieved by ornamental bricklaying on its south wall is the most striking feature of this old building along with its great historical and architectural value.

The Koca Mustafa Paşa Mosque, from which the district takes its name, lies in the far west of the city. It is in fact the church of the Hosios Andreas Monastery, founded after the Latin invasion at the end of the l3th century. It was turned into a mosque in the reign of Bayezıd II by Koca Mustafa Paşa, one of his viziers, and immediately adjoining it a dervish convent was founded by Sheikh Sünbül Sinan. Due to the fact that when it was turned into a mosque its layout and external architectural appearance were transformed to give it an entirely Turkish-Ottoman aspect, its Byzantine architecture can only be discerned inside the building. On the other hand the Kilise (church) Mosque in the Vefa district, of which the old name is not known (perhaps it was Hagios Theodoros?) was a small 11-12th century church which was turned into a mosque named after Molla Gürâni, one of the eminent scholars during the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror. Towards the end of the l3th century an outer hall with three domes which consisted of five sections was added on the west side of the church. Between 1936 and 1937 mosaics depicting the Prophets of the Pentateuch were discovered in this part of the building. In the latter we can see the lively facade aesthetics and ornamental brickwork that were such an essential feature of late Byzantine architecture.

The Fethiye Mosque, which stands on high ground overlooking the Golden Horn in the Çarşamba district of the city, is in fact the church of the ammakaristos Monastery. This church and monastery were given to the Greeks of Istanbul as a Patriarchate by Mehmet the Conqueror and they were used as such until 1590. The Patriarchate was then removed and the building turned into a mosque. Extremely valuable mosaic pictures were found on the wall and domes of the small church adjoining the main church, which was built by the Tarkhaniotes family, leading citizens of the late Byzantine period, as a chantry chapel.

 Apart from the liveliness of the ornamental brickwork in the walls of this little church there is also an inscription in brickwork running round the wall and a long inscription in verse inside a marble archivolt that runs right round the building. The Zeyrel Kilise (church) Mosque, which commands a view of Atatürk Boulevard, was built in the first half of the 12th century by the Empress Eirene, whose portrait is in a gallery on an upper floor of Ayasofia, and her husband loannes II (1118-1143), at the church of the Pantocrator Monastery (one of the biggest and most important monasteries of the Byzantine period). It consists of three adjoining churches, the middle church being a chantry chapel, and is one of the biggest churches in Istanbul. Many members of the Byzantine royal family are buried in this church, which had a hospital with 50 beds among its outer buildings. It was turned into a mosque by Mehmet the Conqueror and given the name of Zeyrek Mehmet Efendi. In recent years magnificent mosaics were discovered in the floor of the biggest church on the right. A number of cellars and cisterns remain by the side of Atatürk Boulevard, one of which belongs to an old monastery.

A copy of the 'typicon', or articles, of this monastery, which was a sort of foundation, has survived to this day. It provides detailed information about the organisation of the 50-bed hospital. A number of architectural changes were made to the building in the l8th century, probably after the earthquake of 1765. A great deal of rich ornamentation and coloured marble slabs can be seen, paıticularly in the south church. Also, the existence of stained glass windows in the Byzantine period can be assumed from certain remains.

The Kâriye Mosque in the Edirnekapısı district was the church of the Khora Monastery in the Byzantine period, it dedicated to Christ. Although there may have been an even older church on the same site, the building we see today belongs to the 12th century. It is possible that lsaakhios Komnenos, one of the sons of Alexios I, had the church rebuilt and embellished with mosaics. He had probably planned for himself to be buried in this church because there is a mosaic portrait of himself beneath the panel depicting Jesus Christ in the inner hall. Between 1310 and 1320, 'L' shaped additions were made on either side of the church by Theodoros Metokites, treasurer-in-chief. These additions and all the interior walls of the church, its vaults and domes were embellished with mosaics and frescoes depicting the life of the Virgin Mary and the miracles of Christ. Although this church was turned into a mosque at the end of the l5th century by Atik Ali Paşa, the pictures were never deliberately damaged and were in many places left exposed. Due to the fact that they are the finest surviving examples of Byzantine art the Kâriye Mosque is the most-visited historic building in Istanbul after Ayasofia.

The building and the pictures were repaired by the American Byzantine Institute and the building turned into a museum. Most of the pictures are mosaic and those adorning the right transept are frescoes painted on plaster. Over the door leading into the inner sanctum we see a portrait of Metokites presenting the church to Jesus Christ. Other pictures depict Jesus, the Virgin Mary, the Prophets of the Pentateuch, the Apostles the saints, particularly soldier saints, the life and miracles of Jesus Christ in an extremely lively manner. In the transept altar we see scenes of Jesus in the next world, the judgement of souls on the Day of Judgement and in the inner sanctum and the death of the Virgin Mary. In the first entrance hall there are scenes from the life of Jesus and in the second, his miracles are depicted. Great mastery is displayed in their execution, the colours are vivid and the drawings are realistic. The subject of each picture is expressed with sincerity and humanity. Because the additional wing that was built in the 14th century was intended as a chantry chapel the emphasis here is on the next world and the return of spirits after death. It is obvious, from the inscriptions and remains that have been found, that the recesses in the walls of this addition contained the tombs of Byzantine notables. The mosaic and fresco murals in the Kâriye Mosque are, in terms of the mastery of their lines, the importance attached to the three-dimensional quality of the scenes, the realism of the human figures and the way in which the plastic qualities of the bodies is conveyed, far ahead of Mediaeval achievements in figurative painting and demonstrate that a new art aesthetic had emerged in Byzantium that was parallel to that started by Giotto ( 1266-1336) in Italy.

Another of Istanbul's churches that was turned into a mosque is the Arap Mosque on the other side of the Golden Horn at Galata. In all probability, in the years when the Genoese ruled Galata, a church named San Domenico was built in the Gothic style, (which predominated in Europe at that time) by members of the Dominican order in or around 1325 on the ruins of an old Byzantine church. After the conquest, in accordance with the principle adopted of turning the biggest church in every city into a mosque, this too was turned into a mosque bearing the name of Mehmet the Conqueror's pious foundation. There is no convincing evidence to support the popular claim that it was built as a mosque during the 7th or 8th century when the Muslim Arabs were beseiging the city. We can see from the fact that Muslim Arabs who had been forced to flee from Andalusia settled in this neighbourhood during the Turkish period. The old Bell Tower, which is a square structure with a corridor passing underneath, was turned into a minaret and is the city's most interesting minaret. The building was originally rectangular but many changes were made during the restoration carried out in 1910-1912. But just as we can see ribbed vaults, which are the main distinguishing feature of Gothic architecture, in the altar section, we can also see features belonging to the same style in one or two of its windows. In the course of the restoration mentioned above more, than a hundred Genoese gravestones with coats of arms, inscriptions and dates were found under the floor. They are now displayed in the Archaeological Museum.